“…we must here mention that their manner of walking differs from that of white men©”

Author’s Note:  This is the second part of a two part series of related articles and that I originally prepared for the Journal Of The Early Americas; unfortunately, it was never published.  It is a follow-on to an article that was published by the Journal, called “…whether Indians or white men had now gone by...”, [HERE] before they ceased operations.  Incidentally, this article is my daughter and chief proofreader’s favorite article, thank you Kiernan for all of the times that you read through this.

In addition, in this increasingly politically correct world, I felt it wise to emphasize the following disclaimer: George Henry Loskiel, writing in 1794, stated that European colonists were called “white people…thus the Europeans and their descendants are called in America, to distinguish them from the Indians”.  I will use this terminology throughout the article, in keeping with the conventions of the colonial and post-colonial era.

While researching an article on tracking in the 18^th century, I noticed something startling: many early 19^th century observers claimed that Indians had a different manner of walking than did white people of colonial and post-colonial American ² and that this difference was so distinct that you could tell a person’s ethnicity from the tracks they left, even if they were wearing moccasins or shoepacks. 

This difference in the manner of walking as reported by early 19^th century observers left me with three questions.  First, how was the manner of walking so different that early 19th century observers noted it?  Second, did this different manner of walking exist prior to the early 19^th century and was it a learned habit or a natural trait peculiar to the white people of post-colonial North America.  Third, why was this difference in the manner of walking only observed beginning in the early 19^th century?

I believe that exploring these questions will reveal some interesting and significant facts about post-colonial life in North America and the preconceived notions of the people of this time. 

“…heels drawn in, and toes turned outward, which is the most natural position…³”

First, how was the manner of walking of white people and Indians so different that early 19th century authors noted it?  Observers in the early 19^th century described Indians as placing their feet on the ground parallel to each other and the direction of travel when they walked.  In contrast, white people were described as walking with a swinging gait and placing their feet upon the ground with their toes turned out at an angle to the direction of travel.⁴ 

Sir Francis Head described this difference in the manner of walking, with the following diagram and commentary.

Track of the feet per Sir Francis Head

“…the red Indian sneers as he points to the footmarks of the white man, which are always strangely and strongly contrasted with his own.  The redman never turns his toes out…⁵”

His observations were amplified by Jonathan Kneeland, who wrote in 1863 that, “it is well known that the toes of an Indian point straight forward in parallel lines in walking, and are not directed outward on diverging lines… ⁶”

Therefore, it can be seen that there was a large and obvious difference between the way Indians and white people walked, with Indians walking with what we would today consider a more natural gait as compared to what we would consider a very unnatural gait for white people⁷. 

Secondly, did this difference in the manner of walking exist prior to the early 19^th century and was it a learned habit or a natural trait peculiar to the white people of post-colonial North America?

It is clear that this difference in the manner of walking did not exist before the early 19^th century as no observers writing prior to the late 1700s remarked upon it.  It has been shown that trackers during the 1700s found it difficult to distinguish between the tracks made by Indians and those made by white settlers, if they were wearing moccasins or shoepacks⁸.  If this difference in the manner of walking existed before the late 18^th century, then the trackers of this period would have had no difficulty in determining whether Indians or white men had passed by.  That they found it difficult to tell the tracks of Indians and white settlers apart is clearly shown by Colonel Adam Stephen, who wrote in 1755 that by wearing something other than shoes, the tracks that his scouts made when on patrol would not be recognized as being made by white people. ⁹  Colonel Stephen’s observation that he could disguise the ethnicity of his scouts by changing their footwear; argues against his scouts walking with their toes out, as such an obvious trait would have been readily apparent to the Indian trackers who were following his patrols.  Additionally, Colonel Daniel Boone wrote in 1776 that he had found moccasin tracks at the scene of an ambush, but that he could not determine whether they were made by white men or Indians¹⁰.  Colonel Boone, an expert tracker, would have known of the difference in the manner of walking of Indians and of white settlers if it had existed in 1776.  His inability to determine whether Indians or white settlers had left the tracks implies that there was no difference in the gait of white men and Indians at that time.

However, Lewis Wetzel, an expert tracker who lived from 1763 to 1808, knew of this difference in the manner of walking of Indians and white men and made use of this knowledge to determine the ethnicity of the individuals who had passed by: even when they were wearing moccasins or shoepacks.  A biographer writing in 1837 described Lewis Wetzel’s method of distinguishing between the tracks of white people and Indians.

“…Wetzel stated his manner of distinguishing the footsteps of a white man from those of an Indian, although covered with mocasins, and intermixed with the tracks of savages.  He had acquired this tact from closely examining the manner of placing the feet; the Indian stepping with his feet in parallel lines, and first bringing the toe to the ground; while the white man almost invariably places his feet at an angle with the line of march.¹¹”

It would appear from the Lewis Wetzel’s observation that within just a short time of the American Revolution there was already such a noticeable difference in the manner of walking that it was possible to determine the ethnicity of the person leaving tracks, even when they were wearing moccasins or shoepacks.  This was something that was not possible before the late 1700s, so we would have to conclude that this difference in the manner of walking did not exist prior to the late 18^th century and only became common during the early 19^th century.

“…we drill our soldiers (as well as our children) to stand and walk with their toes turned out…¹²”

The fact that the toes-out gait of white people was not observed before the late 18^th century and was only consistently mentioned beginning in the early 19^th century strongly implies that this gait was a learned habit and was not a natural trait peculiar to white people of post-colonial North America.  This is reinforced by the many 19^th century observers who reported on both children and soldiers being trained to stand and walk with their toes turned out.

Parents taught their children to stand with their toes turned out at an angle, as shown by an excerpt from The Baptist Magazine for 1858. 

“The poor child used to stand for two or three hours a day in a constrained posture, in a back-board and stocks, (instruments of torture used in my young days, to turn the toes out and the shoulder-blades in,)...¹³”

Mrs. Merrifield agreed that parents were teaching their children to stand and walk with their toes out when she wrote, “The American Indian will trace a European by his footprints, which he detects by the turning out of the toes; a lesson we are taught in our childhood…¹⁴”

British military recruits were also trained to stand and walk with their toes turned out.  This was observed by the editor of the 1809 The Annual Register, who wrote “…He immediately proceeded to have them taught secundum artem; eyes to the right, toes out, and so on…¹⁵”

Another example of military recruits being trained to turn their toes out is given by an early 19^th century American author, who described West Africans who had been rescued from slave ships and who had been enlisted into the British Army, noted this training when he wrote “they are taught to turn their toes out …¹⁶”

It is clear from these observations that walking with yours toes turned out was not a natural trait peculiar of white people in post-colonial North America, but was a learned habit which was taught both in childhood and also during military training. 

“…that artificial deformity called beauty…¹⁷”

Third, why was this difference in the manner of walking only observed beginning in the late 18^th and early 19^th centuries?

People of the early 19^th century, much like their modern counterparts, were slaves to fashion and it was considered natural, beautiful and graceful to stand and walk with your toes pointing out at an angle.  As the United States became wealthier and more cosmopolitan during the late 18^th and early 19^th centuries, the wealthy and the upwardly mobile had the time and income to train their children to stand and walk fashionably, with their toes turned out.

Writing in 1834, J. L. Comstock, M.D., had this to say about the fashion of standing and walking with the toes turned out:

“The base, on which a man is supported, in walking, or standing, is his feet, and the space between them.  By turning the toes out, this base is made broader, without taking much from its length, and hence persons who turn their toes outward, not only walk more firmly, but more gracefully, than those who turn them inward.¹⁸”

 

A detail of Plate 2, “Shoulder your Firelocks”, from A Plan of Discipline, Composed for the Use of the Militia of the County of Norfolk, showing the soldier standing with his toes turned out.

Another reason that the toes out manner of walking became common during the late 18^th and early 19^th centuries in North America was the need for systemized military instruction, to train the thousands of provincial militia called out during the French and Indian War of 1754-1763.  When training colonial militia, British and Provincial officers used Bland’s Treatise of Military Discipline¹⁹, which taught soldiers to stand with their “Heels in a strait Line, and the Toes turn’d a little outward.²⁰”

During the Revolutionary War, American officers also taught their recruits to stand and walk with their toes turned out.  Baron Von Steuben codified this practice with his 1778, Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States.  This became known as the “Blue Book” and continued as the official United States military manual until 1812.²¹  This manual stated that a soldier was to stand with his “…heels two inches apart: the toes turned out…²²”.

 

A detail of a water color by Jean-Baptiste Antoine de Verger (1762-1851) showing a soldier of the 1st Rhode Island Regiment and a New England militiaman during the siege of Yorktown, standing at attention with their toes turned out.

Between the demands of fashion and the needs of the military, by the end of the 18^th and the beginning of the 19^th centuries, a gait that modern day people would consider an un-natural manner of walking had become common throughout post-colonial North America.  In fact, this manner of walking would come to be a distinguishing trait of white people in post-colonial North America. 

Interestingly, Indians found the toes out gait of the white people to be both amusing and awkward, as was noted by the author of Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to The Rocky Mountains.

“… the swinging gait so universal with the white people, which is regarded by them as excessively awkward, and which they imitate in their sports to excite the merriment of the spectators, though not in the presence of those they ridicule.²³”

“… they say that turning out the toes in walking, as well as turning them inward, is a very disadvantageous mode of progressing, in high grass or in narrow pathways.²⁴”

This is something that George Catlin also discovered during his travels, when he observed in 1830 that, “I soon found upon trial, that by turning my toes in, my feet went more easily through the grass... ²⁴”

The answers to the questions posed in this article have revealed some fascinating and surprising facts about life in post-colonial North America.  Not only did a person’s manner of walking provide a 19^th century tracker with clues to their ethnicity, but the judgments that Indians and white people made about each other, derived from their different manner of walking, come into clearer focus. 

Notes

¹ Abbe Emmanuel Domenech, Seven Years’ Residence in the Great Deserts of North America, Vol. 2, (London, printed by Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, [1860]), 329. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=eJrw4hjyVeEC&pg=PA329&dq=%22we+must+here+mention+that+their+manner+of+walking+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yfI3T--7Lau70AGQqqCrAg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22we%20must%20here%20mention%20that%20their%20manner%20of%20walking%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

² George Henry Loskiel, writing in 1794, stated that European colonists were called “white people…thus the Europeans and their descendants are called in America, to distinguish them from the Indians”.  I will use this terminology throughout the article, in keeping with the conventions of the colonial and post-colonial era.

George Henry Loskiel, History of the Mission of the United Brethern among the Indians in North America, (London, printed by John Stockdale [1794]), 3. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=BGUFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=%22thus+the+Europeans+and+their+descendants+are+called+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oLggT4r6G6rd0QGr5rzvCA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22thus%20the%20Europeans%20and%20their%20descendants%20are%20called%20%22&f=false (accessed October 13, 2011)

³ Benjamin Silliman, The American Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. V, No. 1, (New-Haven, published by S. Converse, [1822]), 224. Reprinted in http://books.google.se/books?id=g_cecotnY04C&pg=PA224&dq=%22the+prints+are+those+of+a+man+standing+erect%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ddEzT5_yCcen4gSmosj8AQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22the%20prints%20are%20those%20of%20a%20man%20standing%20erect%22&f=false (accessed February 8, 2012)

⁴ Writing about an 1819 expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, the author observed the following:

“In walking they preserve a perfectly upright carriage of the person, without any thing of the swinging gait so universal with the white people…” and “In stepping the feet are universally placed upon the ground in a parallel manner with each other… ”

Edwin James, Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to The Rocky Mountains, performed in the years 1819, 1820, Vol II, (London, printed by Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, [1823]), 5. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=9pk-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5&dq=%22In+walking+they+preserve+a+perfectly+upright+carriage+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=hfM3T9rmE8jz0gH9_PnVAg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22In%20walking%20they%20preserve%20a%20perfectly%20upright%20carriage%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

⁵ On the Dress of Soldiers by General Sir J.F. Burgoyne, which included an earlier work by Sir Francis Head, who was the Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada from 1835 to 1838: Upper Canada was a province in Canada which consists today of much of modern day Ontario.

General Sir J.F. Burgoyne, “On the Dress of Soldiers”, from Papers on Subjects Connected with the Duties of the Corps of Royal Engineers, Vol XII, (Woolwich, England, printed by W. P. Jackson, [1863]), 122-125. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=ORZ-AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA122&dq=%22the+red+Indian+sneers+as+he+points+to+the+footmarks+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KfM3T9JD59rRAZ7ewaYC&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22the%20red%20Indian%20sneers%20as%20he%20points%20to%20the%20footmarks%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

⁶ Jonathan Kneeland, M.D., The Transactions of the American Medical Association, Vol. 15, (Philadelphia, printed by Collins [1865]), 259. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=JudXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA259&dq=%22well+known+that+the+toes+of+an+Indian+point+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=z_A3T8jCMqLI0QGy9rm9Ag&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22well%20known%20that%20the%20toes%20of%20an%20Indian%20point%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

⁷ Interestingly, while most observers described Indians as placing their feet parallel to each other, some observers described Indians as walking ‘toed-in’.  However, when compared to the toes turned out manner of walking which they were accustomed to seeing; this is how feet placed parallel to each other would have appeared.  The Reverend O. M. Spencer, who had been taken captive by Indians in Ohio, wrote:

“…I noticed that in running (as in walking) they turn their toes in, hindering the full force of the muscles of the leg; and that their movements resembled more the bounding of the deer than the more rapid steps of the whites, whose lower, forward efforts, bore them only onward…”

Rev. O. M. Spencer, Indian Captivity: A True narrative of the Capture of the Rev. O. M. Spencer by the Indians, in the neighbourhood of Cincinnati, (New York, published by Lane and Scott, [1852]), 98-99. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=mWNAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22indian+captivity%22+spencer&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mIQ6T8PUOePo0QH555yhCw&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22indian%20captivity%22%20spencer&f=false (accessed February 14, 2012)

⁸ Eric Reynolds, “…whether Indians or white men had now gone by...”,  Journal of the Early Americas, [Volume III, Issue I, March/April, 2013], p. 6, found [HERE]

⁹ Colonel Adam Stephen, writing on September 27^th, 1755 noted that “The Indians discover our Parties by the Track of their Shoes.  It would be a good thing to have Shoe-packs or Moccosons for the Scouts.”

Stanislaus Murray Hamilton, editor, Letters to Washington and Accompanying Papers, Vol I 1752-1756, (New York, printed by, Houghton, Mifflin and Company, [1898]), 99. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=UoN6tkdByacC&pg=PA99&dq=%22The+Indians+discover+our+Parties+by+the+Track%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OogbT57pIqLz0gG5k-WmCw&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Indians%20discover%20our%20Parties%20by%20the%20Track%22&f=false (accessed April 11, 2011)

¹⁰ In letter dated January 3^rd, 1776; Colonel Williams from Boonesborough describes the aftermath of an Indian ambush that took place on December 23^rd, 1775 and was reported by Colonel Boone. 

“…could make no other discovery than two mockisson tracks, whether Indians’ or not, could not be determined.”

James Hall, Sketches of History, Life, and Manners, in the West, Vol. II, (Philadelphia, printed by Harrison Hall, [1835]), 241-246. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=2ykVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA246&dq=%22could+make+no+other+discovery+than+two+mockisson%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=DIkbT4qTI8PW0QHu9v2ZCw&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22could%20make%20no%20other%20discovery%20than%20two%20mockisson%22&f=false  (accessed May 5, 2011)

¹¹ Benjamin Silliman, M. D., The American Journal of Science and Arts, Vol XXXI-January, 1837, (New Haven, printed by B. L. Hamlen, [1837]), 16. Reprinted in http://books.google.se/books?id=72IWAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA16&dq=footsteps+wetzel&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-4MxT9z7Msjb4QS99dnjBA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=footsteps%20wetzel&f=false (accessed February 7, 2012)

¹² General Sir J.F. Burgoyne, “On the Dress of Soldiers”, from Papers on Subjects Connected with the Duties of the Corps of Royal Engineers, Vol XII, (Woolwich, England, printed by W. P. Jackson, [1863]), 122-125. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=ORZ-AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA122&dq=%22the+red+Indian+sneers+as+he+points+to+the+footmarks+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KfM3T9JD59rRAZ7ewaYC&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22the%20red%20Indian%20sneers%20as%20he%20points%20to%20the%20footmarks%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

¹³ The Baptist Magazine for 1858, Vol. L, (London, printed by Pewtress & Co., [1858]), 412. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=EecRAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA412&dq=%22The+poor+child+used+to+stand+for+two+or+three+hours+a+day+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=LvY3T6XiAYTw0gHZka31BQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22The%20poor%20child%20used%20to%20stand%20for%20two%20or%20three%20hours%20a%20day%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

¹⁴ Louis Antoine Godey, Godey’s Lady’s Book, Volumes 46-47, No. VIII, September 1853, (Philadelphia, printed by C. T. Hinckley [1853]), 240. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=Q8hZAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA240&dq=%22The+American+Indian+will+trace+a+European+by+his+footprints%22&hl=sv&sa=X&ei=gxk5T5WAJqH64QSHwJShCw&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20American%20Indian%20will%20trace%20a%20European%20by%20his%20footprints%22&f=false

(accessed February 13, 2012)

¹⁵ The Annual Register, or a view of the History, Politics, and Literature for the Year 1807, (London, printed for W. Otridge & Son, [1809]), 37. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=7Zc-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA82&dq=%22150+recruits+were+sent+out+to+the+regiment+of+which+he+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=t_Q3T-jVN6bh0QG549WuAw&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22150%20recruits%20were%20sent%20out%20to%20the%20regiment%20of%20which%20he%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

¹⁶ The American Colonization Society, The African Repository and Colonial Journal, Vol. XVIII, (Washington, printed by Alexander and Barnard, [1841], 244. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=01qCe4EOu7AC&pg=PA244&dq=%22and+in+a+few+months+they+are+taught+to+turn+their+toes+out+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7_M3T6XZEaXW0QHch4WlAg&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22and%20in%20a%20few%20months%20they%20are%20taught%20to%20turn%20their%20toes%20out%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

¹⁷ The Baptist Magazine for 1858, Vol. L, (London, printed by Pewtress & Co., [1858]), 412. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=EecRAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA412&dq=%22The+poor+child+used+to+stand+for+two+or+three+hours+a+day+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=LvY3T6XiAYTw0gHZka31BQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22The%20poor%20child%20used%20to%20stand%20for%20two%20or%20three%20hours%20a%20day%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

¹⁸ J. L. Comstock, M.D., A System of Natural Philosophy, (Hartford, printed by D.F. Robinson & Co, [1834]), 50. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=4gE5AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=%22The+base,+on+which+a+man+is+supported,+in+walking%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=rxg5T96sNqfV4QTkoqWhCw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22The%20base%2C%20on%20which%20a%20man%20is%20supported%2C%20in%20walking%22&f=false

 (accessed February 13, 2012)

¹⁹ During the French and Indian War many Provincial militia officers, such as the Virginian Provincial Captain Robert Stobo and the Massachusetts Provincial Colonel Ephraim Williams, used Bland’s Treatise to drill the raw militia recruits that they were responsible for.

“The most popular military treatise among eighteenth-century colonial officers seems to have been Treatise of Military Discipline by Humphrey Bland, a veteran of the Duke of Marlborough’s European campaigns.  Originally published in 1727, this work had run to nine editions by 1762.  By reading Bland, a colonial officer could gain a good introduction to the mechanics of soldiering as practiced in Western Europe in the first half of the eighteenth century.”

Armstrong Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 1675-1815, (Norman, Oklahoma, published by University of Oklahoma Press, [1998]), 45-46

“Colonel Washington himself studied war from Humphrey Bland’s ‘Treatise on Military Discipline’ first published in 1727 and the leading English tactical manual of the day.  He recommended it to other militia officers, that they might better mold their part-time soldiers into approximations of the men-at-arms of Europe.  Evidently it was widely used throughout the colonies”

Russell F. Weigley, History of the United States Army, (Bloomington, Indiana, published by Indiana university Press, [1984]), 11.

²⁰ Humphrey Bland, A Treatise of Military Discipline, The Fifth Edition, (London, printed for Daniel Midwinter, [1743]), 18. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=xHtUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA18&dq=%22the+Heels+in+a+strait+Line,+and+the+Toes%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=K-83T6eIIIXZ0QHPhMypAg&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22the%20Heels%20in%20a%20strait%20Line%2C%20and%20the%20Toes%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

²¹ Frederick William Baron von Steuben, Baron von Steuben’s Revolutionary War Drill Manual: A Facsimile Reprint of the 1794 Edition, (New York, Dover Publications, Inc., [1985]), publishers note ii

²² Ibid. p. 11

²³ Edwin James, Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to The Rocky Mountains, performed in the years 1819, 1820, Vol II, (London, printed by Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, [1823]), 5. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=9pk-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5&dq=%22In+walking+they+preserve+a+perfectly+upright+carriage+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=hfM3T9rmE8jz0gH9_PnVAg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22In%20walking%20they%20preserve%20a%20perfectly%20upright%20carriage%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

²⁴ Ibid. p. 5

²⁵ George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians.  Written during Eight Years ’ Travel Amongst the Wildest Tribes of Indians in North America, Vol I, (New York, printed by Wiley and Putnam, [1841]), 219. Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=p2QtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219&dq=%22my+feet+went+more+easily+through+the+grass%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=d0k4T5KkIofc0QGRwPiwAg&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%22my%20feet%20went%20more%20easily%20through%20the%20grass%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

Illustrations

The diagram detailing the difference between the manner of walking of white people and Indians was included in “On the Dress of Soldiers”, by General Sir J.F. Burgoyne, from Papers on Subjects Connected with the Duties of the Corps of Royal Engineers, Vol XII, (Woolwich, England, printed by W. P. Jackson, [1863]), 122-125.  In his “On the Dress of Soldiers”, General Sir J.F. Burgoyne references an 1820 work by Sir Francis Head.  Reprinted in http://books.google.com/books?id=ORZ-AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA122&dq=%22the+red+Indian+sneers+as+he+points+to+the+footmarks+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KfM3T9JD59rRAZ7ewaYC&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22the%20red%20Indian%20sneers%20as%20he%20points%20to%20the%20footmarks%20%22&f=false (accessed February 12, 2012)

The detail of Plate 2, Shoulder your Firelocks, from A Plan of Discipline, Composed for the Use of the Militia of the County of Norfolk, showing the soldier standing with his toes turned out, is from A Plan of Discipline, Composed for the Use of the Militia of the County of Norfolk, by William Windham & George Townshend, (London, printed for J. Shuckburgh, [1759]), p151

http://books.google.se/books?id=B0EIAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22a+plan+of+discipline%22+townshend&source=bl&ots=qIjO9kbNFV&sig=nDxoAE8IdksU5RK-yuR7QrLQ3V4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=H7pPUMusBufE4gTM9YDgCQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22a%20plan%20of%20discipline%22%20townshend&f=false (accessed September 11, 2012)

The water color “Four Soldiers” by Jean-Baptiste Antoine de Verger is in the collection of Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection at Brown University Library

http://library.brown.edu/collections/askb/ (accessed February 12, 2012)

The information about the “Four Soldiers” was posted in http://atlanticportal.hil.unb.ca/acva/blackloyalists/en/context/gallery/deverger.html (accessed February 12, 2012)