A white spruce branch, photograph by the Author.
This
article can be used by experimental archaeologists, re-enactors
or historical trekkers of the late 18th and early 19th
centuries, and by anyone who is interested in wilderness survival and nutrition
– Author’s Note.
The
year is 1535 and you are a sailor aboard one of the three ships that sailed on
Jacques Cartier’s second voyage to the New World. It is December, the ice on the “rivière du
Canada” (todays St. Lawrence River) is twelve feet thick, your gums have
begun to bleed, your teeth are falling out and you have purple bruises all over
your skin – you are dying of “scorbut”! Scorbut, today is known as scurvy. The Native Americans, from the Huron village
of Stadacona1, have brought a tea made from the bark and needles of a
tree that they call “annedda”, which they say will cure you. You and one other sailor decide to take a risk
and drink it and when you do you begin to feel better immediately! It is magic, this “annedda” is the “tree of life”, the “arbre de vie”!
“Vitamin C In Evergreen-Tree Needles”, Science, August 6, 1943, page 132, by Maurice Donnelly
Scurvy
is a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C in a person’s diet. The human body requires vitamin C to
neutralize the tissue damaging free radicals and to process carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins. It is also required
for the proper functioning of the body’s organs and for the formation and
maintenance of collagen, the body’s primary building protein.
The
symptoms of scurvy begin to appear when your body’s total store of vitamin C
falls below 5 grams2. The
early symptoms of scurvy are fatigue, lethargy, and depression. Left untreated, by the addition of vitamin C
to your diet, after several months the other symptoms of scurvy can appear, which
include anemia, bone pain, poor wound healing, swelling, easy bruising, tiny
purple, red, or brown spots on the skin, receding gums and loose teeth. If vitamin C is not added to the diet, scurvy
is fatal.
Historically,
Native Americans and members of Canada’s First Nations suffered from scurvy,
particularly during the winter, when this disease was one of the most common
diseases among the Iroquois, during late springs and during food shortages3. It is only natural that over the millennia
they would have found effective remedies to scurvy and that is how they knew to
brew a decoction of needles and bark from the “annedda” to treat
it! Interestingly, as far as vitamin C
goes, evergreen needles have more vitamin C during the winter and early spring
months, just when, historically, scurvy was most likely4. And it is this decoction, full of vitamin C, that
saved Cartier’s crew and his second voyage to the New World.
From Wikimedia, “Leg of a patient with scorbutus (scurvy), 1887”, HERE, showing petechiae or purple, red, or brown spots on the skin.
So,
just what tree was the “arbre de vie”, the “tree
of life”, it is a mystery to today’s researchers and botanists. The only information that we have from
Cartier, was that the tree “annedda”, which the inhabitants of
Stadaconna used to cure scurvy, was “...a tree as big
as any oak in France...”.
Unfortunately, for those who would like to make an accurate
identification of the “tree of life”, the tree which the Hurons called “annedda”,
which has been written by various authors as “aneda”, “anneda”, “hanneda”
and even “ameda”, was never described by Cartier except as a large coniferous,
evergreen tree. The Mohawk and the Onondaga,
who like the Huron spoke an Iroquoian language, used the word “ohneta”
for white pine and the word “onita” or “onnetta” for white spruce5.
Originally,
the eastern white cedar (thuja occidentalis L.) was thought to be the “tree
of life”, and in fact eastern white cedar is often called arbor vitae, or tree
of life, in Latin. And over the centuries,
seven other species of tree have also been thought to be “annedda”, the “tree
of life”6.
So,
which trees was it!
An excerpt from An Illustrated Guide To Northeastern Forest Trees, Tina Nelson & Janet Lanza, page 14.
The
most likely tree to be the actual “annedda”, the “tree of life”, based
on size, what trees were common around Stadaconna, today’s Quebec City, and the
ethnobotanical literature; are the eastern white pine (pinus strobus), the
eastern hemlock (tsuga canadensis) and the white
spruce (picea glauca).
So,
let’s look at the evidence...
Because
the “anneda”, as described by Cartier, was as big as any oak in France, and
oaks in France can grow to be 65 to 130 feet (20 to 40 meters) tall7,
eastern white cedars which when full grown only reach 30 to 40 feet in height
(9 to 12 meters), and black spruces, with an average height of up to 60 feet
(18 meters)6, are both not a good match for the “tree of life”.
Eastern
white pines which average 150 feet (46 meters) tall8, might be a
better choice, based on their height. Eastern
hemlock which grows to be 100 feet (30 meters) tall on average, would also be a
good match for “annedda”, the “tree of life”. And finally, white spruce which is commonly
from 60 to 80 feet (18 to 24 meters) in height, might also be possibility.
So,
both the eastern white cedar and the black spruce are out of the running to be
the “tree of life”, due to their rather small size, even though their needles
contain vitamin C. This leaves just the
eastern white pine, the eastern hemlock, and the white spruce as candidates for
the title of “annedda”, “tree of life”.
So,
what evergreen, coniferous trees grew where Stadaconna, now Québec City, once stood? Interestingly, the
three trees which might have been what Cartier knew as “annedda” the
“tree of life”; the eastern white pine, the eastern hemlock, and the white
spruce, are all common trees found in the forests of northeastern North
America, according to the authors of An Illustrated Guide To Northeastern
Forest Trees.
And
to further disqualify the eastern white cedar and the black spruce, which have
both been thought to be the “tree of life” in the past, these two types of
trees are not common trees found in the northeastern forests9. Durzan, the author of Arginine,
scurvy and Cartier's "tree of life", noted that spruce trees
were common in the Québec City area, unfortunately he didn’t say whether it was
white or black spruce.
So,
if we assume that “annedda”, the “tree of life”, was a tree that was
commonly found in the northeastern forests of North America, we are still left
with the eastern white pine, the white spruce, and the eastern
hemlock as the most likely trees.
“Vitamin C In Evergreen-Tree Needles”, Science, September 10, 1943, p. 242, by Charles Macnamara.
So,
according to ethnobotanical studies and interviews with Native Americans and
members of Canada’s First Nations, was the eastern white
pine, the white spruce or the eastern hemlock, the most likely candidate to
be “annedda”, the “tree of life”?
Well unfortunately all of them could be!
Durzan,
the author of Arginine, scurvy and Cartier's "tree of life",
noted that spruce trees, either white or black, were a likely candidate and
that teas, beers and brews made from the needles and bark of spruce trees were
used to prevent and cure scurvy, as were the bark and needles of eastern white
pine trees. Other authors note that
Native Americans and the members of the First Nations of Canada used the
needles and bark of eastern hemlock to cure or prevent scurvy. Macnamara, writing in 1943, thought that the
two trees most likely to have been “annedda” were the white spruce and
the eastern hemlock, with the eastern hemlock being the most likely candidate.
Personally,
I think that the tree that saved the French sailors from scurvy was the eastern
hemlock, tsuga canadensis, because in my opinion, it best matches Cartier’s
description, it was a common tree found around today’s Québec City and because
the ethnobotanical descriptions of it being used to cure scurvy. However, in the end we will never truly know
whether “annedda”, the “tree of life” was an eastern white pine, a white
spruce, or an eastern hemlock, since it could have been any of them!
“A Tea Prepared From Needles Of Pine Trees Against Scurvy”, Science, September 10, 1943, page 241-242, by Béla Schick
So,
let’s enjoy a nice cup of evergreen tea, shall we? For an excellent article on evergreen needle
tea, read “Pine Needle Tea Recipe: Natural Source of Vitamin C”, by Eric Orr, HERE.
First
find some needles from either an eastern white pine, a white spruce, or an
eastern hemlock. According to the “Seasonal
Changes in Carbohydrates and Ascorbic Acid and White Pine and Possible Relation
to Tipburn Sensitivity”, from December 1969, which studied eastern white pine, if
you are looking for high vitamin C content, it is best to use older needles
since they have most vitamin C per gram10. If you are looking for good taste and a mild,
delicate flavor use younger needles.
Don’t
boil the needles as boiling destroys vitamin C and will release more terpenes
from the needles, making the tea smell and taste piney, like turpentine. To get the most vitamin C, from your tea,
drink it as soon as possible.
According
to the recipe by Cindy Halbkat, in “Pine Needle Tea Recipe: Natural Source of
Vitamin C”, you should use ½ cup (64 grams) of needles to three cups (710 ml)
of water. Bring the water to a boil, add
the needles, and then reduce the heat.
Simmer for 20 minutes, strain and serve.
And
as for any possible dangers in drinking evergreen tea, “Pine Needle Tea Recipe:
Natural Source of Vitamin C” does an excellent job of explaining the possible dangers. Basically, if you are concerned, use only the
needles from an eastern white pine, a white spruce or an eastern hemlock and
drink in moderation.
A white spruce branch, photograph by the Author.
Don’t forget to come back next week and read “Composite
Tracks and a Visit by Spring-Heeled Jack ©”, where we will talk about when two
tracks blend into one.
I
hope that you continue to enjoy The Woodsman’s Journal Online and look for me
on YouTube at Bandanaman Productions for other related videos, HERE. Don’t forget to follow me on both The
Woodsman’s Journal Online, HERE,
and subscribe to BandanaMan Productions on YouTube. If you have questions, as always, feel free
to leave a comment on either site. I
announce new articles on Facebook at Eric Reynolds, on Instagram at
bandanamanaproductions, and on VK at Eric Reynolds, so watch for me.
That
is all for now, and as always, until next time, Happy Trails!
Notes
1 Stadacona
was a Huron village, and “kanata” is the Iroquoian word for village or
settlement, the Hurons were an Iroquoian culture and
were Iroquoian speakers. Because Cartier,
in 1535, misunderstood what the Hurons were saying when they said “kanata”,
he used that word to describe not only the village, but all the territory
controlled by Donnacona, the chief of the village. Soon all the area north of the St. Lawrence River,
which was then called “rivière du Canada”, and by 1616 all New France began to
be called Canada. And that is how the
Iroquoian word for village, became the name for all of Canada. Today the site of Stadacona, is Québec City.
From
Encyclopedia.com, “Quebec (Stadacona)”, and Government of Canada, “Origin of
the name Canada”
2
Don J. Durzan, Arginine, scurvy and Cartier's "tree of life", p.
2
3
Ibid, p. 1 and 5
4 Ibid,
p. 1
5
Trees suspected of being or variously identified as “annedda” are below and
the mg of reduced ascorbic acid (vitamin C) per 100 grams of needles is shown.
Species
of tree Vitamin
C
Eastern white cedar thuja occidentalis L. 45 mg
White
spruce picea glauca 20-80 mg
Black spruce picea mariana
Eastern
white pine pinus strobus 32 mg *
Red spruce picea rubens 169 mg
Balsam
fir abier
balsamea 270 mg
Eastern hemlock tsuga
canadensis **
Juniper juniperus
communis
Red pine pinus resinosa
*Additionally,
eastern white pine bark has 200 mg of reduced ascorbic acid (vitamin C) per 100
grams of bark.
**Eastern
hemlock, according to Charlotte Erichsen-Brown, in Medicinal and Other Uses
of North American Plants, page 11, that eastern hemlock “has a higher
Vitamin C content than the spruce...these two trees are the ones that contain
the most Vitamin C of all of the eastern north American evergreens”. Unfortunately, I was only able to find one
source which detailed just how much vitamin C, eastern hemlocks contained, and,
again unfortunately, the needles were collected during August and September
when, according to the research the vitamin C in the evergreen needles is at its
lowest. Even so, according to “Pinus
sylvestris L. and other Conifers”, by Ain Raal, et. al., the eastern hemlock contained the
largest amount of vitamin C at 15 mg/100 grams of needles, of all the types of
needles collected during August and September.
***As
a comparison, the vitamin C in oranges and lemons is 50 mg per 100 grams of
fruit and a medium-sized apple contains 6-8 mg of vitamin C.
From
Don J. Durzan, Arginine, scurvy and Cartier's ‘tree of life”
6
There are two types of oak trees common to France, sessile oaks (quercus
petraea) and english oaks (quercus robur), both of which can grow to
be 65 to 130 feet (20 to 40 meters) tall.
From
various internet sources.
7
Although some individual eastern white pine trees are known to reach heights of
more than 200 feet (60 meters), according to the United States Department of
Agriculture Fact Sheet, the average height is 150 feet or 45 meters.
From
United States Department of Agriculture Fact Sheet, “Eastern White Pine, Pinus
Strobus L.”,
8 Only
in the better spots do black spruces reach their full height, in low fertility,
boggy sites black spruces are stunted and only reach a fraction of their
potential height.
From
“The Spruces” by Bill Cook
9 In
fact, in the case of black spruce, it would have been an unlikely tree to have
been found at the site of Stadaconna, because this type of tree is usually
found in wet and boggy areas, which would not be a good location for a
settlement. Black Spruce (picea
mariana) is so often found in wet and boggy areas that according to Bill
Cook, the author “The Spruces”, the best way to tell if a tree is a white
spruce or a black spruce “...is to look at your feet. If you are standing in a wetland, it’s
probably a black spruce. If you are on
an upland site, it’s probably a white spruce”.
From
“The Spruces” by Bill Cook
10 Robert
L. Barnes, & Charles R. Berry, “Seasonal Changes in Carbohydrates and
Ascorbic Acid and White Pine and Possible Relation to Tipburn Sensitivity”,
page 4
Sources
Barnes, Robert L. & Berry, Charles R.; “Seasonal
Changes in Carbohydrates and Ascorbic Acid and White Pine and Possible Relation
to Tipburn Sensitivity”,
[USDA Forest Service Research, Asheville, NC, Southeastern Forest Experiment
Station, December 1969,] p. 1-4, https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/3462, accessed
February
28, 2021
Schick,
Béla; “A Tea Prepared From Needles Of Pine Trees Against Scurvy”, Science, September
10, 1943, Vol. 98, Issue 2541, p. 241-242, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/98/2541/241, accessed March 2, 2021
Cook, Bill; “The
Spruces”, U.P. Tree Identification Key, from Michigan State University
Extension, http://uptreeid.com/Species/spruces.htm,
accessed February 28, 2021
Donnelly, Maurice;
“Vitamin C In Evergreen-Tree Needles”, Science, August 6, 1943, Vol. 98, Issue
2536, p. 132, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/98/2536/132.1, accessed
March 3, 2021
Durzan,
Don J.; Arginine, scurvy and Cartier's "tree of life",
February 2, 2009, [Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 5, 5 (2009), doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-5],
https://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/1746-4269-5-5.pdf,
accessed February 18, 2021
Encyclopedia.com;
“Quebec (Stadacona)”, [© 2019 Encyclopedia.com], https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/quebec-stadacona#:~:text=Site%20of%20an%20Iroquois%20village,named)%20by%20Champlain%20in%201608,
accessed February 18, 2021
Erichsen-Brown,
Charlotte; Medicinal and Other Uses of North American Plants, p. 1 to
18, https://books.google.com/books?id=G_3EoqRpPusC&pg=PA14&lpg=PA14&dq=%22eastern+hemlock%22+vitamin+c+mg&source=bl&ots=p4oPctbluR&sig=ACfU3U25eoOjvXNYt9sh35MXky7Y_KZPAw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiAta2L6pbvAhVTF1kFHTXJA4Q4UBDoATAFegQIBxAD#v=onepage&q=%22eastern%20hemlock%22%20vitamin%20c%20mg&f=false,
accessed March 4, 2021
Houston, C. Stuart; “Scurvy
and Canadian Exploration”, CBMH/BCHM, Volume 7, 1990, p. 161-167, https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/cbmh.7.2.161,
accessed March 4, 2021
Government
of Canada; “Origin of the name Canada”, https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/origin-name-canada.html,
accessed February 18, 2021
Macnamara,
Charles; “Vitamin C In Evergreen-Tree Needles”, Science, September 10, 1943, Vol.
98, Issue 2541, p. 242, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/98/2541/242.1, accessed March 2, 2021
Nelson, Tina & Lanza, Janet; An Illustrated
Guide To Northeastern Forest Trees, Marginal Media, Bioguide
No. 4, 1983
Orr,
Eric, “Pine Needle Tea Recipe: Natural Source of Vitamin C”, [©
2010-2021 Wild Edible], https://www.wildedible.com/pine-needle-tea-natural-vitamin-c,
accessed February 28, 2021
Raal, Ain, Nisuma, Katrin
& Meos, Andres; “Pinus sylvestris L. and other conifers as natural sources
of ascorbic acid”, Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research, 2018, 6
(2), 89-95, https://jppres.com/jppres/pdf/vol6/jppres17.287_6.2.89.pdf,
accessed March 5, 2021
United
States Department of Agriculture Fact Sheet, “Eastern White Pine, Pinus Strobus
L.”, https://www.plants.usda.gov/factsheet/pdf/fs_pist.pdf,
accessed March 2, 2021
Wikimedia; “Leg of a
patient with scorbutus (scurvy), 1887”, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Leg_of_a_patient_with_scorbutus_%28scurvy%29%2C_1887_Wellcome_L0062031.jpg/800px-Leg_of_a_patient_with_scorbutus_%28scurvy%29%2C_1887_Wellcome_L0062031.jpg,
accessed February 18, 2021
